MAINS Current Affairs includes Transgender Rights and Women’s Protections & Sri Lanka Power Grid Collapse: Concerns Over Grid Stabilisation

Social Justice

1. Transgender Rights and Women’s Protections

Context: The Supreme Court recently sought the Central Government’s response to a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) filed by a women’s organisation.

• The petition argues that the regulatory framework developed after the landmark NALSA v. Union of India (2014) judgment adversely affects the rights and protections of biological women.
• The issue has brought renewed attention to the need to balance transgender rights, women’s protections, constitutional equality and individual dignity.

Key Features of the NALSA Regime

• The legal and policy framework for transgender rights in India is based on the Supreme Court’s judgment in National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) v. Union of India (2014) and subsequent legislation.

Judicial foundation

• The Supreme Court recognised transgender persons as a third gender.
• It held that gender identity is an essential component of an individual’s dignity and personal autonomy under Article 21.
• The Court also interpreted the term ‘sex’ under Articles 15 and 16 to include gender identity.

Right to self-identification

• The judgment recognised an individual’s right to determine their own gender identity.
• This right was recognised irrespective of whether the individual had undergone sex reassignment surgery.

Affirmative action

• The Supreme Court directed the Central and State Governments to treat transgender persons as socially and educationally backward classes.
• It also called for appropriate welfare measures and schemes to address their social and economic disadvantages.

Statutory framework: Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019

• The Act provides a legislative framework for protecting the rights of transgender persons.
• Its important provisions include:
• Definition: Defines the category of transgender persons for the purposes of the legislation.
• Certificate of identity: Provides for the issuance of a certificate of identity by the District Magistrate.
• Institutional mechanism: Establishes the National Council for Transgender Persons to address issues concerning the community and promote their welfare.

Major Concerns Raised by the Petitioners

Possible dilution of sex-based protections

• Several laws relating to workplace harassment, domestic violence and sexual offences have been framed around the female body and the specific vulnerabilities of women.
• The petitioners argue that an expanded definition of gender-based protection could create ambiguity regarding the scope and application of these laws.

Overlap in reservation provisions

• The Women’s Reservation Act, 2023 provides for reserving one-third of seats for women.
• Critics argue that identity-based claims could create competition between biological women and transgender persons in accessing these reserved seats.

Single-sex spaces and sporting activities

• Certain institutional and public facilities are organised around sex-specific requirements relating to privacy, safety and fairness.
• These include:
  • Women’s shelters.
  • Women’s sporting categories.
• International sporting organisations have also tightened eligibility requirements for women’s sports categories, citing concerns regarding competitive fairness.

Concerns regarding verification

• The petitioners question whether self-identification without medical or objective verification could create possibilities of misuse.
• They argue that such concerns become more significant when legal status is associated with access to specific benefits and protections.

Legislative vacuum

• Judicial interpretations have expanded the recognition and protection of transgender rights.
• However, Parliament has not comprehensively resolved the possible overlap between women’s rights and transgender entitlements.
• This has raised concerns regarding clarity and consistency in the legal framework.

Counter Perspective: Why Does the NALSA Framework Matter?

• The NALSA framework is important for protecting the dignity, equality and fundamental rights of a historically marginalised community.

Constitutional morality and individual identity

• The Supreme Court’s judgments in Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018) and Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017) recognised identity and privacy as important constitutional liberties.
• These principles reinforce the importance of personal autonomy and individual dignity.
• Recognition of dignity cannot be made dependent exclusively on biological characteristics.

Evidence of social exclusion

• Transgender persons continue to experience substantial social and economic disadvantages, including:
• High school dropout rates.
• Unemployment and limited livelihood opportunities.
• Social discrimination and violence.
• According to the 2011 Census, India had approximately 8 lakh transgender persons. Activists consider this figure an underestimation of the actual population.

Implementation gap in affirmative action

• The NALSA judgment directed governments to extend reservation-related benefits to transgender persons.
• However, this direction remains largely unimplemented.
• Several States also have weak or ineffective Transgender Welfare Boards.

Unequal legal protection against sexual abuse

• Section 18 of the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 prescribes imprisonment of six months to two years for sexual abuse of a transgender person.
• This is significantly lower than the punishment prescribed for similar offences against women.
• Therefore, the existing legal framework itself raises concerns about unequal protection and the need for stronger safeguards.

Concerns regarding the certification process

• Critics argue that the District Magistrate-based certification process may not fully reflect the principle of self-identification recognised in the NALSA judgment.
• They also question the requirement of surgery-linked revised certification under the statutory framework.
• Such requirements are viewed as potentially inconsistent with the principle that gender identity should not depend on medical intervention.

International Developments

United Kingdom

• In For Women Scotland Ltd. v. The Scottish Ministers (2025), the UK Supreme Court held that the terms ‘woman’ and ‘sex’ under the Equality Act, 2010 refer to biological sex.

United States

• Recent judicial developments in the United States have addressed the use of biological sex as a criterion for determining eligibility in women’s sporting categories.
• These developments reflect ongoing international debates concerning the interpretation of sex-based protections, gender identity and eligibility requirements in specific institutional settings.

Way Forward

Balance constitutional rights

• Policies should protect the dignity, equality and fundamental rights of transgender persons.
• At the same time, legitimate concerns regarding women’s rights, privacy and safety must be addressed.
• The objective should be to ensure that the rights of one group are not protected by disregarding the constitutional rights of another.

Adopt a context-specific approach

• Different situations may require distinct policy frameworks.
• Sports: Eligibility rules may consider the specific requirements of competitive fairness.
• Institutional accommodation: Prisons, shelters and hostels may require arrangements addressing privacy, dignity and safety.
• Public facilities: Policies should ensure accessibility, safety and protection from discrimination.

Ensure meaningful stakeholder consultation

• The government should involve multiple stakeholders while framing policies, including:
  • Women’s organisations.
  • Transgender communities.
  • Legal experts.
  • Human rights organisations.
  • Relevant institutional authorities.
• Consultative policymaking can help identify practical concerns and develop balanced legal and administrative arrangements.

Conclusion

The debate over transgender rights and women’s protections highlights the challenge of reconciling different dimensions of constitutional equality, dignity, privacy and safety.

India needs a rights-based and consultative approach that protects transgender persons from discrimination while addressing legitimate concerns relating to women’s rights. Clear legislation, context-specific policies and effective implementation are essential for ensuring dignity and equal protection for all.

Renewable Energy

2. Sri Lanka Power Grid Collapse: Concerns Over Grid Stabilisation

Context: Recently, Sri Lanka experienced a collapse of its national power grid, following which rooftop solar operators were directed to switch off their systems until further notice.

• The incident highlighted the difficulties associated with integrating large volumes of decentralised solar power into the electricity grid while maintaining its stability.

About the Issue

• The incident has renewed concerns about how increasing volumes of decentralised solar generation can be managed without disrupting the stability of the power system.
• The issue is also significant for India, which is rapidly expanding its rooftop solar capacity. India’s rooftop solar capacity currently stands at 41 GW.

How Rooftop Solar Systems Connect to the Grid

• Rooftop solar installations are connected to the electricity grid through inverters.
• Inverters perform the following functions:
• Convert the direct current (DC) generated by solar panels into alternating current (AC), which is used by the electricity system.
• Incorporate protection mechanisms that automatically disconnect solar systems when grid voltage or frequency moves beyond specified limits.
• If a large number of rooftop solar installations disconnect simultaneously, the sudden loss of electricity generation can place additional stress on the grid and further destabilise it.

Electricity Transmission

• Electricity generated at a power plant must travel through transmission lines before reaching distribution networks and, ultimately, consumers.
• The basic electricity supply chain is:

Renewable Energy Project → Transmission Network → Distribution Network → Consumers

• India has witnessed rapid growth in solar and wind power generation. However, transmission infrastructure in certain renewable-energy-rich regions has not expanded at the same pace.
• This is particularly important because India’s major renewable-energy resources are concentrated in specific geographical regions.
• Consequently, electricity generated in these regions often needs to be transmitted over hundreds or even thousands of kilometres to reach major consumption centres.

Existing Infrastructure for Grid Transmission

General Network Access (GNA) Framework

• The General Network Access (GNA) Framework provides a temporary arrangement under which renewable-energy projects can utilise whatever spare transmission capacity is available while awaiting their permanent transmission connections.
• Projects operating under Temporary General Network Access (T-GNA) can schedule electricity transmission only when spare network capacity is available.

Concerns associated with T-GNA:

• During periods of transmission congestion, long-term GNA projects receive priority over T-GNA-connected projects.
• As a result, renewable-energy plants using T-GNA may face substantial curtailment of their electricity generation.
• Curtailment in some cases can reach 70–80% of generating capacity.
• Such high levels of curtailment raise serious concerns regarding the financial viability of projects and their ability to service outstanding debt.

Power Curtailment

• When the electricity grid is unable to accommodate the entire volume of electricity being generated, power generation may have to be deliberately reduced.
• This process is known as power curtailment.
• It can occur when transmission infrastructure is insufficient or the network becomes congested.

Why Are Transmission Projects Facing Delays?

• Developing transmission infrastructure is generally more complex and time-consuming than establishing electricity generation capacity.

Major challenges include:

1. Land Acquisition and Right of Way (RoW): Obtaining land and securing the necessary rights for laying transmission lines can delay projects.
2. Regulatory Clearances: Environmental and other statutory approvals often take considerable time.
3. Construction Delays: Development of transmission lines and substations may face implementation-related delays.
4. Specialised Equipment: Procurement of specialised transmission equipment can affect project timelines.
5. Coordination Challenges: Effective coordination is required among renewable-energy developers, transmission companies and government authorities.
6. Mismatch in Commissioning Schedules: Renewable-energy projects and their associated transmission infrastructure may not become operational simultaneously.

• Consequently, a renewable-energy project may be ready to generate electricity even though its dedicated transmission network is still under construction.

Major Concerns

Power Curtailment

• Inadequate transmission capacity may force renewable-energy plants to reduce electricity generation.
• This results in the underutilisation or wastage of clean electricity that could otherwise have been supplied to consumers.

Financial Stress

• Curtailment directly reduces revenue earned by renewable-energy developers.
• Lower revenues make it difficult for project developers to repay loans and service project debt.
• Persistent financial uncertainty may also discourage fresh investment in renewable-energy projects.

Grid Stability

• Solar and wind power generation are intermittent in nature.
• When intermittency is combined with inadequate transmission infrastructure and insufficient energy storage, maintaining grid stability becomes more difficult.
• The electricity system must continuously balance power supply and demand, making reliable grid management essential.

Delay in Achieving Renewable-Energy Targets

• Transmission bottlenecks can restrict the effective utilisation of India’s rapidly expanding renewable-energy capacity.
• This may adversely affect the achievement of India’s 2030 clean-energy and climate targets.

Government Initiatives

Grid Integration Plan

• India is undertaking a ₹2.4 lakh crore Transmission Plan for 500 GW to strengthen the national grid and connect renewable-energy-rich states with major electricity demand centres.
• Investment in transmission infrastructure is being prioritised through:
• Green Energy Corridors.
• New high-capacity transmission lines connecting renewable-energy-producing regions such as Rajasthan, Gujarat and Ladakh.
• These projects require several years for completion. Once operational, they are expected to facilitate the integration of over 200 GW of additional renewable-energy capacity.

Vision Till 2032

• The government has planned the development of High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission corridors.
• It also aims to expand inter-regional transmission capacity according to the following targets:

• This expansion is intended to strengthen electricity transmission between different regions of the country.

Incentives for Domestic Manufacturing

• Measures are being undertaken to promote domestic manufacturing and reduce dependence on imported equipment.
• These include:
  • Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme.
  • Domestic Content Requirement.
  • Imposition of duties.
  • Duty exemptions for capital equipment.

National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE)

• NISE provides institutional support for the development of solar-energy technologies.
• Its activities include:
  • Training programmes.
  • Research support.
• Its work covers solar photovoltaic (PV), solar thermal and hybrid technologies.

Capacity Building for State Nodal Agencies (SNAs)

• Training and technical assistance are provided to state renewable-energy agencies.
• The objective is to improve their capacity in:
• Project implementation.
• Enforcement of renewable-energy policies.

Research and Innovation Support

• Government support is being extended to research and development in emerging clean-energy technologies, including:
• Battery storage.
• Hybrid renewable-energy projects.
• Offshore wind energy.
• Green hydrogen.

International Cooperation and Training

• India is collaborating with international organisations such as the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and GIZ.
• These partnerships facilitate knowledge exchange, capacity building and the sharing of global best practices.

Deployment of Smart Grid Technologies

• Advanced grid-support technologies are being planned to strengthen the electricity network.
• Their objectives include:
• Improving voltage stability.
• Enhancing the strength and reliability of the power system.
• Supporting the integration of larger volumes of renewable energy.

Conclusion

• Over the past two years, policy attention has increasingly shifted from merely expanding renewable-energy generation capacity towards strengthening the overall electricity system and its design.
• Investments in transmission infrastructure, grid modernisation and related reforms represent an important step towards:
• Optimising the utilisation of existing transmission networks.
• Accelerating the integration of renewable-energy capacity.
• Fast-tracking stranded renewable-energy projects.
• Strengthening transmission and grid-stabilisation mechanisms is therefore essential for ensuring that India’s expanding renewable-energy capacity translates into reliable and usable electricity.

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