MAINS Current Affairs includes Antarctic Cryosphere & India–Canada Defence Relations in a Changing Global Order

GEOGRAPHY

1. Antarctic Cryosphere

Context: The world’s largest iceberg, A23a, has disappeared after nearly four decades, marking the end of one of the most remarkable journeys in Antarctic history.

• Originally covering an area almost twice the size of London and weighing nearly one trillion tonnes, the iceberg has fragmented into smaller pieces and melted to such an extent that it is no longer detectable by satellites.
• Although the disappearance of A23a alone is not direct evidence of climate change, it provides an important opportunity to understand the changing dynamics of the Antarctic Cryosphere and its implications for the global climate system.

About Iceberg A23a

• A23a is one of the largest icebergs ever recorded.
• It calved (broke away) from the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica in 1986.
• After calving, it remained grounded on the seabed for several decades before eventually breaking free and drifting into the Southern Ocean.
• Its eventual fragmentation resulted from the combined effects of:
• Ocean currents;
• Warmer ocean waters;
• Wave action; and
• Meltwater processes.

The lifecycle of A23a illustrates the dynamic nature of Antarctica’s floating ice masses and the interaction between the cryosphere and ocean systems.

What is the Cryosphere?

• The cryosphererefers to all parts of the earth where water exists in solid form like ice sheets, glaciers, icebergs, and Permafrost.
• And, the Antarctic cryosphere is particularly important because Antarctica contains the world’s largest ice sheet. The ice sheet covers nearly 14 million square kilometres of size and contains enough ice to raise global mean sea level by approximately 58 metres if it were to melt completely.

Factors Driving Changes in the Antarctic Cryosphere

1. Rising Ocean Temperatures

• One of the most significant drivers of Antarctic ice loss is the warming of ocean waters.
• Relatively warm ocean currents reach the underside of floating ice shelves, causing basal melting.
• This process can occur even when surface air temperatures remain well below freezing.
• Basal melting weakens ice shelves and accelerates glacier discharge into the ocean.

2. Atmospheric Warming

Increasing atmospheric temperatures contribute to several changes, including:

• Surface melting;
• Formation of meltwater ponds;
• Hydrofracturing (cracking due to meltwater); and
• Weakening of ice shelves.

Hydrofracturing allows water to penetrate deep into ice, increasing the likelihood of ice shelf collapse.

3. Changes in Ocean Currents and Wind Patterns

• Ocean currents transport warm water towards Antarctic glaciers and ice shelves.
• Similarly, changing wind patterns alter ocean circulation, allowing more warm water to reach floating ice.
• These processes accelerate melting and destabilise the cryosphere.

4. Iceberg Calving and Wave Action

• Calving is a natural process through which glaciers and ice shelves release icebergs.
• However, warmer oceans, weakened ice structures and increased wave action can accelerate both calving and iceberg fragmentation.
• The case of A23a demonstrates how changing oceanic conditions can transform the behaviour of an iceberg that remained stable for decades.

5. Changes in Snowfall and Precipitation

The Antarctic Ice Sheet continuously gains mass through snowfall.

At the same time, it loses mass through:

• Iceberg calving;
• Surface melting; and
• Ice discharge into the ocean.

The overall health of the Antarctic ice sheet depends on the balance between these gains and losses.

Impacts of Changes in the Antarctic Cryosphere

• Changes in Ocean Circulation: Large quantities of freshwater entering the ocean can alter: Ocean salinity, Water density, Deep-water formation, and Global ocean circulation.
  • Antarctic Bottom Water is an important component of the global ocean circulation system. Changes in Antarctic freshwater and ice processes can therefore have consequences beyond the polar region.
• Marine Ecosystems: Changes in sea ice can affect: Krill, Penguins, Seals, Whales and Other marine organisms. For example, changes in the distribution and accessibility of prey under sea ice can affect the feeding behaviour and survival strategies of penguins.
• Ice-Albedo Feedback: Snow and ice reflect a significant proportion of incoming solar radiation. When ice and snow cover decline:
  • Less ice → lower albedo → more solar energy absorbed → further warming. This creates a positive feedback loop that can accelerate warming.
• Threat to Coastal Regions: Rising sea levels can increase coastal flooding, shoreline erosion, saltwater intrusion, and damage to coastal infrastructure. For India, sea-level rise poses risks to densely populated coastal regions, including parts of Mumbai, Kolkata and the Sundarbans.

India’s Initiatives Related to Antarctica and Polar Research 

• Indian Antarctic Programme: It began in 1981, has completed 40 scientific expeditions and built three permanent research base stations in Antarctica. Dakshin Gangotri (1983), Maitri (1988) and Bharati (2012). Currently, Maitri and Bharati are fully operational.
• National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research: It is an autonomous institute under the Ministry of Earth Sciences which manages the entire Indian Antarctic programme. It is based in Goa.

Way Forward

• Scientific monitoring of the Antarctic Cryosphere should be strengthened through expanded satellite observations, climate modelling and international research collaboration.
• Greater investment in polar research infrastructure and long-term data collection is essential to improve understanding of ice-sheet dynamics and their influence on global climate systems.
• Efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions under the Paris Agreement remain critical to limiting long-term warming and slowing Antarctic ice loss.
• India should continue strengthening its Indian Antarctic Programme, expand research through Maitri and Bharati stations, and actively contribute to international polar governance and scientific cooperation.
• Finally, adaptation strategies for vulnerable coastal regions—including improved coastal planning, resilient infrastructure and ecosystem-based management—must be integrated with climate mitigation efforts to address the long-term impacts of Antarctic changes.

Conclusion

The disappearance of A23a should not be viewed in isolation as definitive evidence of climate change, since iceberg calving and melting are natural processes. Nevertheless, it serves as an important case study illustrating the dynamic nature of the Antarctic Cryosphere and the complex interactions between the ocean, atmosphere and ice.

The greater concern lies not in the fate of a single iceberg but in the cumulative changes occurring across Antarctic ice sheets, glaciers, ice shelves and sea ice, which have profound implications for global sea levels, ocean circulation, marine ecosystems and climate stability. Protecting and understanding the Antarctic Cryosphere is therefore essential for achieving global climate resilience and sustainable development.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

2. India–Canada Defence Relations in a Changing Global Order

Context: India and Canada are witnessing a renewed phase of bilateral engagement following the India–Canada Joint Leaders’ Statement, with defence, critical minerals, space cooperation and advanced technologies emerging as key pillars of the relationship.

In the backdrop of a rapidly changing global security environment, the Indo-Pacific’s growing strategic significance, supply-chain diversification and technological competition, both countries are seeking to rebuild trust and expand strategic cooperation.

India–Canada Relations: An Overview

• India and Canada share a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership founded on:
• Democratic values;
• Rule of Law;
• Respect for a rules-based international order;
• Strong people-to-people ties;
• Expanding trade and investment; and
• Cooperation in multilateral institutions.
• The recent Joint Leaders’ Statement reaffirmed both countries’ commitment to strengthening cooperation in trade, clean energy, critical minerals, defence, innovation and the Indo-Pacific, and the restoration of high-level political engagement.

Importance of India–Canada Relations

For India

Canada is an important partner for India because of its:

• Advanced technologies;
• Investment potential;
• Educational institutions;
• Critical mineral resources;
• Clean energy expertise; and
• Innovation ecosystem.

Canada also supports India’s efforts towards technological modernisation and industrial development.

For Canada

Canada considers India an increasingly important partner due to:

• India’s growing economy;
• Expanding defence capabilities;
• Strategic role in the Indo-Pacific;
• Large consumer market; and
• Position as a trusted democratic partner.

India is viewed as an essential partner in promoting a Free, Open and Inclusive Indo-Pacific.

India–Canada Defence Cooperation

• Military Cooperation: India and Canada have reaccredited Defence Advisersin New Delhi and Ottawa to strengthen military engagement.
  • Both countries agreed to institutionalise a Defence Dialogueto identify priority areas and improve strategic coordination.
  • The Indian and Canadian Navieshave participated together in multilateral exercises such as RIMPAC (Rim of the Pacific Exercise); and Exercise Talisman Sabre.
  • A delegation from the National Defence College, India will visit Canada in 2026 to advance professional military education and exchanges of officers.
• Technology and Defence Industrial Collaboration:Modern warfare is driven by drones, autonomous systems, artificial intelligence, cyber capabilities and advanced aerospace technologies that creates opportunities for deeper collaboration.
  • Canada has invested roughly $500 million in next-generation aerospace technologies, including drone innovation, and established the Defence Investment and Industrial Agenciesto streamline procurement and diversify supply chains.
  • These research ecosystems in Canada  are suitable to India’s expanding manufacturing capacity under ‘Make in India’ and Aatmanirbhar Bharat.
• Strategic Cooperation in Space: Potential areas of cooperation could be in the field of satellite technologies, space robotics, earth observation, maritime domain awareness, space based security applications.
  • Canada’s satellite constellation RADARSATcan be a boost to India’s maritime surveillance and navy capabilities, particularly in the Indo-Pacific.
• Critical Minerals Partnership: Critical minerals are now vital for defence manufacturing, semiconductors, electric vehicles, renewable energy and advanced electronics.
  • Canada has the tenth-largest reserves of critical minerals, third-largest recoverable uranium resources, about 5% of the world’s tungsten reserves, close to 24% of the world’s uranium production (2024), and 31 critical mineral reserves.
  • India and Canada signed MoU on Critical Minerals Value Chain (2026)to boost resilient supply chains. It helps Canada diversify to trusted markets and supports India’s goal of secure access to strategic minerals.

Related Challenges and Issues

• Legacy diplomatic tensionshave affected political trust and bilateral cooperation.
• Differences on security concerns and law enforcement issuesremain to require continued communication.
• Defence cooperation is still in its early stages and has few institutional mechanisms.
• Global competition for critical mineralscould impact supply security.
• Regulatory barriers, technology transfer restrictions and different procurement systems could slow down defence industrial cooperation.
• The Indo-Pacific and West Asia are experiencing geopolitical uncertainty that is changing strategic priorities.

Way Forward

• The India–Canada Defence Dialogue should be institutionalised through regular ministerial, military and strategic consultations to provide continuity to bilateral engagement.
• Both countries should expand joint naval exercises, military training programmes and officer exchange initiatives to improve interoperability and strengthen defence diplomacy.
• Greater emphasis should be placed on co-development and co-production of advanced defence technologies, particularly in aerospace, drones, artificial intelligence, cyber security and autonomous systems, while aligning these efforts with India’s Make in India and Aatmanirbhar Bharat
• The Critical Minerals Value Chain MoU should be operationalised through long-term investments, diversified supply chains and collaborative research to ensure secure access to strategic minerals.
• Cooperation should also be deepened in space technologies, satellite applications and Maritime Domain Awareness, leveraging Canada’s capabilities such as the RADARSAT constellation to strengthen regional security in the Indo-Pacific.
• Finally, stronger collaboration among governments, academia, research institutions, start-ups and defence industries should be encouraged to drive innovation, while broader strategic ties should be reinforced through enhanced trade, investment, technology partnerships and people-to-people exchanges.

Conclusion

The renewed momentum in India–Canada relations presents an opportunity to build a comprehensive strategic partnership centred on defence, critical minerals, advanced technologies, space cooperation and resilient supply chains. In an increasingly uncertain global security environment, these areas offer significant potential to enhance both countries’ strategic capabilities and economic resilience.

While challenges arising from past diplomatic tensions and evolving geopolitical dynamics remain, sustained dialogue, institutional cooperation and mutual trust can transform India–Canada defence relations into an important pillar of their broader bilateral partnership, contributing to a free, open, inclusive and rules-based Indo-Pacific and strengthening cooperation in the emerging global order.

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